CHAPTER XI 
RAISING Stakes—The raising hammer—Planishing and collet hammers—Sinking-Raising—Annealing—Shaping—Planishing—Various hints. 

Hollow vessels of almost any shape may be hammered from one piece of sheet metal Avithout a join. This process is known as raising. In modern workshops it has been largely abandoned infavour of spinning—a method by which the sheet of metal is burnished into shape on a lathe. Spin ning is very generally used where many copies of the same article are required. But for its freedom from limitations and its personal qualities raising always holds its own for artistic work. 

The tools required for raising are— 
A number of stakes. The T-stake, Fig. 112, is an ex tremely useful one. The raising of work of almost every shape is commenced on this tool, though it may be completed on another. The stake is made of iron, steel-faced. The arms are each about 12 inches long, elliptical in section, one measuring about 2 1/2 inches wide by 1 inch deep at the end, the other about 11/2 inches by 1 inch. This tool either stands permanently in a large block of wood, or it can be held in a vice. As a substitute for this stake a rod of steel or brass, 12 to 18 inches long and 1 1/2 or 2 inches in diameter, maybe used. Its efficiency is increased if one end is slightly flattened on top and the extremity undercut to make an angle of about 70° with the upper surface, as shown on the drawing of the T-stake. Largebowls may be raised even on wood. The bickiron also, Fig. 113, is T-shaped. In this tool one arm is flat on top, and the other circular in section, tapering from about 1 1/2 inch diameter at the shoulder to 1/2 inch at the end. Bottom stakes, Fig. 114, are flat on top and circular in plan. Three inches and 1| inch in diameter are good sizes; the shank should be 9 inches long and not less than 1 inch square. These tools are used for levelling the flat bottom of boAvls and for other work. Round-headed stakes, Figs. 115 to 117, have many uses. Some of the most valuable stakes are those shown in Figs. 118 to 121. Upon them work of almost any form may be shaped and planished. These tools can be made by a blacksmith in mild steel, or in iron, from bars which must not be less than 1 inch square. If made from material f inch square they are not rigid enough. Another tool is called a horse, Fig. 122; at the end of each arm is a small square hole into which goes the shank of a small stake. The long arms enable the small stakes to be applied to almost any part of the work. A number of small stakes fit on to this horse. They are made in many shapes, fluted or smooth, Figs. 123 to 127. 

A sinking block. This is a piece of wood with several shallow circular depressions cut in it. These hollows may range from about 8 inches in diameter and l\ inch deep, to 2 inches by J inch. Pieces of metal can be sunk to a rough saucer shape in these holloAvs by means of a round-faced mallet or hammer. The sinking block is often made from a piece of tree trunk 2 feet high, with the depression cut in the top. 

A vice. This should not weigh less than 65 lb. It should have jaAvs at least 5 inches wide. Vices of 50 lb weight or less are not rigid enough to prevent vibration. The vice should be firmly bolted to the bench, and that to the wall or floor, for it must be quite firm. 

Several hammers. It is most important that these should be of the proper shape, as their efficiency is thereby vastly increased. 

The raising hammer is shown in Figs. 128, 129. It has two faces, each measuring 1 1/4 by 3/8 inch. They have all the edges and corners well rounded off. This is especially necessary in the case of the front corners, i. e. those furthest from the handle, for if they are not sufficiently rounded they are likely to cut into the work, and thus give more trouble in planishing. For the same reason the face of the hammer is made as wide as lj inch, for it has been found by experience that a wide-faced raising hammer cuts the work about less than a narrow one. The face of the hammer in most general use is flat in section. The other face is rounded, as shown in the drawing. The weight of the head is about 8 oz,; and the hammer has a handle over a foot long, indeed, 16 inches is not too great a length. Some craftsmen use a hammer with a circular face, like the left side of that shown in Fig. 132. If, however, they were to give the hammer shown in Fig. 128 a fair trial, they would hardly be likely to go back to the other. The straight-faced hammer is certainly the more efficient tool. 

The second raising hammer is like the other in all respects except that the thickness of the face is 1/8 inch instead of 3/8 inch. The handle may be rather shorter. 

The raising mallet, Fig. 130, or a horn tip, Fig. 131, may often be used instead of the raising hammer. The horn tip is the end of a bullock's horn. It is sometimes weighted Avith lead. The face of each of these tools is cut to a wedge-shape. The thickness of the wedge at the point is about I inch. These tools do not bruise the metal so much as a steel hammer does, so there are fewer marks to remove in the final planishing. Italian coppersmiths seem always to use the mallet in preference to the raising hammer. It may be well to note in this connection that there is one very definite difference between the silversmith and the copper smith in his manner of holding a bowl-shaped vessel while raising it to shape. The silversmith holds the bowl with its openingturnedawayfromhim,asshowninFigs. 139to 142, while the coppersmith puts his bowl on the far end of the stake with its opening towards him. And each craftsman is certain that his own is the correct way. 

The planishing hammer, Fig. 132,has two flat faces. One may be circular, the other square. Beginners may find considerable difficulty in managing this tool properly, for, in unskilful hands, its sharp corners leave marks at almost every blow. The secret of its successful use lies in a certain stiffening of the wrist. Try to bring the hammer down 11 dead true " each time, and the wildness of aim which is responsible for the trouble Avill disappear. But, to begin Avith, a planishing hammer Avhose sharp corners have been rounded off should be used. 

Collet hammers. These are shown in the illustration, Figs.133to 135. They are made in a variety of sizes to suit the very varied uses to which they may be put. 

The ball-faced hammer, Fig. 136, is used for bossing work up from the back and for a number of other purposes. So 
also is the sinking hammer, Fig. 137, whose principal work, however, is that of sinking the central, depressed portions of round trays and other objects. The hammer shown in Fig. 138 is for Avork inside bowls—levelling the.bottom, for example. 

A pair of compasses with quadrant, if possible, and a pair of callipers. 

Snarling irons. 

Blowpipe, bellows and a hearth upon which annealing and soldering can be done. 

The great majority of shapes to be raised—bowls, cups, vases, etc., though differing widely in profile, are all more or less circular in plan. They are, therefore, all raised from circular pieces of sheet metal. It is usual to take a disc of 
metal rather less in diameter than the combined height and width of the bowl you wish to make, if the metal is of a fair thickness, say size 12on the metal gauge, or thicker. A tall, narrow shape requires less metal than a shallow one of the same combined measurements. A hemispherical bowl 6 inches in diameter can be made from a disc 8 inches in diameter, size 12. If the metal is thicker than this and you care to thin it in hammering, of course a smaller piece will do. A bowl can be made either from a small piece of very thick metal or from a larger, thinner piece of the same 
weight, the latter taking less time. But metal thinner than about size 8 on the metal gauge is very difficult to raise. The sizes between 10 and 16 are the best to use. A little bowl may be sunk out of a five-shilling piece, the inscrip tion on the edge being left intact. To do this take a round-faced hammer and strike repeated blows in the centre of the coin, on a flat stake. The metal will go hollow on top, and the hollow can be made deeper and deeper by continued hammering. The work can, after a time, be turned over on the rounded stake and shaped and planished smooth. Do not omit to anneal pretty frequently. 

The fruit standshown inFig. 165 measures nearly 6inches high, 7£ inches across the bowl, 5 inches across the foot. Depth of bowl, 2| inches. Narrowest part of stem, £ inch. The boAvl, being very shallow, will require a disc 9| inches in diameter. The foot, Avhich is a shape which will take a good deal of hammering, will come out of a disc 6| inches in diameter. Bothdiscsareofsilver,size14onthemetalgauge. File off the rough edges of the discs, so that they may be comfortable to handle. With the round-faced mallet or hammer sink the discs to a rough saucer shape in one of the hollows of the sinking block. If the metal now feels hard and springy, anneal it. To anneal is to soften the metal by making it red hot. Remember that copper may be quenched while red hot, but for brass or silver it is safer to let the metal cool a little before putting it into the water or pickle. Take the compasses and round the centre of the convex side of the metal, lightly scratch a circle 5| inches in diameter on the larger disc and one lj inch in diameter on the smaller. From these circles the raising will commence. Place the T-stake in the vice or in its block. 


Hold the larger disc of silver with its concave side against the end of the larger arm, Avith part of the scratched circle opposite the upper corner of the tool. The upper edge of the disc of silver should be held by the left forefinger about 3/4  inch above the top of the stake, the forefinger resting against the top or side of the tool. Now, with the flatter side of the raising hammer, strike a sharp blow a quarter of an inch above the scratched line, Fig. 139. The force of the blow must be sufficient to carry that part of the metal touched by the hammer downAvards against the top of the stake, Fig. 140. It is essential that the metal be driven right against the stake, so a second blow must be given in the same place if the first has not been completely successful. A sharp click or ring from the stake will announce that the blow has got right home. Turn the metal a little, still keeping the scratched circle opposite the upper corner of the stake, and strike another blow beside the first. Continue this process right round the circle, taking care that at each Woav the hammer gets home. The front edge of the hammer face should produce a very definite groove, or rather angle, between that part of the metal with which it has been in contact and that further from the centre of the disc. To ensure this it is well to hold the elboAV rather high and to notice from time to time that the front edge of the hammer face is doing its work properly. Fig. 141 shoAvs the bad effect of holding the hand too low,—the edge would come in very slowly if you did not make the front corner of the hammer do more work. Continue the hammering in a spiral round and round the bowl to the edge, the distance between the coils of the spiral being rather less than the thickness of the hammer face, say J inch. Before the hammering has reached the rim the latter will present a waved appearance, Figs. 143, 144. This is quite correct, but care must be taken to prevent any folding of the metal, for folds are extremely difficult to remove and, if allowed to remain, they develop later into cracks. To remove a pleat or deep Avaveremember to strike blows ahvays at its narrow extremity—where it begins to rise above its surroundings. If you strike at the wider end you may, indeed, remove the fold, but your bowl is making no progress. You would only commence at the wide end if the metal had begun to form an actual pleat at the narrow end, Avhich had to be got out at any cost. Anneal first. 

When the hammering has reached to the edge of the disc, the metal will feel very hard and springy. It must be annealed before you go over it again. But if you wish the edge of the bowl, when completed, to be very thick and strong, it is well to put the work on a sandbag and hammer straight down on to its edge all the way round, before annealing. Do this after every course of raising, and by the time the bowl has been completed the edge of the metal will have grown considerably thicker. When you have given the metal its first course (of raising), its shape will be that of a shalloAv bowl about 9 1/2 inches diameter and perhaps 1 inch deep, Fig. 146. Each successive course should increase its depth and decrease its diameter by about 3/8 inch. Beginners sometimes find considerable difficulty in inducing the bowl to become smaller at the top. They obtain a form something like Fig. 152. They have failed to keep the edge of the metal a sufficient distance above the top of the stake, and they have not seen to it that the front edge of the hammer face did its work properly by making the very definite angle, mentioned above, betAveen that part of the metal which has been struck and that which has yet to be. The remedy for this state of things lies in keeping the elbow high and in listening for the sharp click which tells that the hammer has gone home. In some cases, when the meted is thin, for example, the other raising hammer (Avith face 1|-by | inch) may be used to advantage. This hammer touches a smaller piece of metal at each blow, so the force applied is able to do its work more effectually. But progress is slower. 

The different forms passed through in raising a boAvl like Fig. 151 are shown in the series Figs. 145 to 151. It will be noticed that to reach a shape with a narrow mouth it is usual to shift the place from which raising is done from the bottom corner to B in Fig. 148. This will enable you to reach a form like Fig. 149, from which it is not difficult to produce the shape required. The raising should be continued until the neck of the bowl is rather less in diameter (1/8 inch or so) than the diameter actually required. Fig. 157 shows at C and D the points from which the raising would be done for a shape like Fig. 156. 

To return to the work upon the cake stand, Fig. 165. The centre of the bowl may'be hammered down to the correct curve with a round-faced hammer; the work resting on a sandbag. Should a boAvl when being raised groAV too deep, place it face downwards on the bench and tap it in all over with a flat-faced hammer, watching the curvature and taking care not to make any large dents. The pressure of the corner of the stake Avill have produced a projecting ridge at the scratched line mentioned above, or the corners B (Fig. 148), C and D (Fig. 157). The ridge or ridges should be removed also by hammering the work on a suitable stake. You generally raise a shape in straightish fines, filling out the curves when shaping and planishing. These processes come next. They go on more or less concurrently—bossing out, with rounded hammer or snarling iron, any part that is too hollow; and planishing, that is to say, hammering the work quite smooth all over—leaving a regular series of hammer marks everywhere. For the marks left by the raising hammer are irregular in position and uneven in size and depth. Anneal the work first. Find a stake which Avill fit the required curve. Hold the stake against the drawing to make sure. Probably it will fit only a part, so use the stake for that part of the work only, and another for the re mainder. See that the stake is clean and smooth, rubbing it bright Avith emery paper if necessary. With the planishing hammer commence at the centre of the boAvl and hammer out all the uneven marks. After doing a little piece, look inside. If the corresponding part there does not look smooth you must strike harder or use a heavier hammer. Go round and round in a long spiral from the centre to the rim, leaving a very regular series of hammer marks all the Avay. If the stake does not fit very well do not work straight round, but planish little patches about f inch in diameter, each folloAving on and blending with the others. Watch the outline and remember that the work you are doing now will expand the bowl a little, For if you continue to strike hard on any place which is solidly supported underneath, the metal between hammer and stake must stretch, and, being stretched, must go somewhere, so your hammering will tend to raise a bump. Bearing this fact in mind, you will be able to shape your bowl as required. Should you wish to enlarge any part considerably you can boss it out with the snarling iron, as described later. Raising and planishing being completed, anneal, then work the flutes, as they are quite simple ones, by filling the boAvl with pitch and putting the lines in with chasing tools. In any case, whether the bowl be plain or fluted, when the hammering is completed, if you find that the edge is not very true scratch a line round it with the compasses, just touching the lowest indentation in its edge. Then, with the open part of the boAvl turned towards you, cut the edge true with the shears. Let them travel round the upper edge of the bowl towards your left hand. It is easier to cut in that direction. Then file the top of the bowl level and give it a rub on the flat stone to make quite true. 

The raising of the foot, Fig. 153, must now be taken in hand, though many workers would carry on both bowl and foot alternately. The arm of the T-stake is too wide at the end to go inside the foot, so work should be commenced on a rod of iron about 1 1/4 inch in diameter. It may be held in the vice. Take no notice at present of the angle near the bottom of the foot, but raise the foot to the shape shown in the dotted line B, Fig. 153. It will not be necessary to thicken the edge of the metal by hammering, as you did for the bowl. The size of the top of the foot, where it is to join the bowl, must be gradually reduced from l 1/2 inch to the correct diameter,—about an inch at the top ; the narrowest part of the stem being a little lower down. It is not well to commence raising from so small a circle, for the smallness of the stake required, 3/4 inch or so, makes the shape more difficult to raise, and the strain and wear on so small a circle are rather severe. The point of the bickiron may be used for this part of the work when you have carried it as far as possible on the 1J inch iron rod, but it is well to see that the point is not so sharp as to cut the metal. Should the foot not be growing tall enough, use the rounded side of the raising hammer, but not quite close to the scratched circle, as the metal is apt to Avork thin there. The rounded side of the hammer stretches and therefore thins the metal, making taller the shape AArhich is being raised. On the other hand, if the shape seems to be growing too tall, use the flat side of the hammer and hold the silver so that the point of the bickiron, or other tool upon which you are working, does not press against the top of the foot. If, however, this does not stop the growth, scratch another circle round the foot about half-way between the top and the rim. Then, on the T-stake, work from this line instead of from the smaller circle until you have reduced the rim to rather less (J inch or so) than the required size. Your Avork will look like Fig. 155. Noav continue the raising process, using the T-stake for the beginning of each course (near the rim), and the bickiron for that part of the foot Avhich is too narrow for the T-stake to reach into. Place the T-stake and the bickiron with the point turned aAvay from you, and raise from the rim to the top instead of from the top to the rim as at first. Still use the flat face of the hammer. Noav that the rim is of the correct size there should be no difficulty in getting the top in also. When, by the eye and the callipers, you find that the shape is correct down to the little shoulder B, Fig. 153, planish down to there, and lightly scratch a circle to mark the corner. Then on the T-stake work doAvn the lowest | inch of the foot to the correct angle and planish that part also. The bottom edge of the foot may be turned outAvards like A, Fig. 153, or a separate moulding soldered on as in Fig. 165. To do the former you must cut the lower edge of the foot true after the planishing of the surface below B has been completed. Then hold the foot upside doAvn against the side and upper edge of some rectangular stake, and tap over the little flange at the bottom. Then see that the bottom is quite level, so that it will stand on a piece of plate glass without rocking, yet touching all round. Afterwards file the edge. 

When raising a tall, narrow shape you may find that the work has a tendency to lean over to one side. But if for each course you reverse the direction in which you rotate the silver while raising, the Avork will keep straight. 

Should you wish to make a hexagonal foot, proceed as above, as far as the turning doAvn of the last § inch. In this case turn it doAvn rather more steeply than the drawing shows, for the difficulty later will be to keep the base narrow enough. Anneal the work. Then divide the rim into six equal parts and draAv lines very carefully to the top. These lines show where the corners are to come, so take great care to ensure their looking true to the eye as well as measuring truly. Cut out the little piece which forms the top of the foot. On any convenient stake flatten each of the six spaces Avith a mallet. Draw straight lines from corner to corner, crossing the lower part of each of the six spaces and formng a regular hexagon. Then, on a flat-sided stake, turn down wards all the metal which projects beyond the lines last drawn. Planish all over, taking great care to keep all the edges true. The bottom will now be uneven, and must be cut level. If the six sides of the foot, instead of being straight, are foiled like Fig. 158, then the parts below the angle B, Fig. 153, are made separately and soldered on, as described in Chapter XXVII. Solid drawn copper tube is sometimes used instead of sheet metal when a tall shape has to be made. The tube may, of course, be hammered and shaped just as the sheet metal can. 

The raising of a shape like Fig. 156, proceeds in precisely the same Avay as that described for the bowl Figs. 145 to 151. Raise to the shape shoAvn by the dotted lines. Shapes like Figs. 159 to 161 are formed similarly. Raise as shoAvn by the dotted lines and afterwards fill out to the proper form, using a snarling iron where necessary. For a 
description of this tool see page 127. Note in Figs. 159 and 161 that while the bowl is being raised its diameter is kept in every part a little less than that finally required. There is no difficulty in reducing the diameter at any point while the raising is in progress. When this is com pleted and the shaping and planishing have commenced, the whole work fills out a little. Any reduction now is rather more troublesome, for you have the planishing to do over again. The flutes in Fig. 160 are set out by scratching in the lines of the ridges, taking great care to get them true and regular. The hollows are then tapped in with collet hammers on to stakes Figs. 123, 124, fluted to the required shape. The flutes are thus planished on shaped stakes. By another method the bowl is filled with pitch and the flutes worked in with repousse, modelling or chasing tools, see Chapter XIV. In modern commercial work the flutes would be struck out in dies. The loAver bosses in Fig. 161 are worked out with the snarling iron, as described on page 127. The upper bosses can, however, be reached Avith a round-faced hammer, and may be bossed out on the lead cake. They are all finished, how ever, with the planishing hammer on suitably shajoed stakes. Or the bowl may be filled with pitch and the shapes finished with chasing tools. 

Bowls oval in plan, their long and short diameters having the ratio of about 3 to 2, Fig. 164, may be raised from circular pieces of metal. An elliptical line is scratched round the centre of the disc of metal (instead of a circular one as in the case of a round bowl). The metal near ABC and D E F will, in the course of raising, stretch more than the metal F A or C D. The reason is that on a curve of small radius (at the ends of the ellipse in this case) the metal gets hammered rather more severely, and naturally stretches to a corresponding degree. The unequal space between the edge of the metal and the scratched line is thus compensated for, and the boAvl rises to an equal height all round. For an elliptical bowl, of which the ratio between the longer and shorter curves is greater than 3 to 2, it is necessary to cut the metal elliptical also. 

The lack of a sufficient variety of stakes will make the work more difficult, but if you have a new stake made when you find the need for it, or alter a useless shape into a good one, a good working set will soon be accumulated. Remem ber that you have a very useful set of small stakes in your hammers. Of these a dozen to twenty will be gradually accumulated. 

At the Japanese exhibition held at the White City, Shepherd's Bush, in 1911, there were shown lions three feet high raised from one piece of sheet iron—without a join. They give an idea as to what can be done by careful work inthis difficult material. Very fine pieces of raising may be seen in some of the mediaeval morions and tilting helmets. These, of course, are of steel. 

Although it is possible, it is not always desirable to make every hollow vessel in this manner. The soda-water bottle shape, Fig. 162, can be so produced, but it would be more reasonable to make it from a piece of solid drawn tube with a piece soldered on at the bottom. The narrow-mouthed square box, Fig. 163, could, if necessary, be raised in one piece, but it could be made much more easily if joins were permitted. Again, there is some difficulty in raising very small articles—they are so difficult to hold. Indeed, bowls of less than 1 1/2 inch diameter may be struck in dies or between suitable shaped punches and a cake of lead or zinc. But with these exceptions, raising may be resorted to for the production of almost any shape.